Inclusive masculinity theory

Older sociological research into men's gender and sexuality frequently finds sport to be restrictive of male behaviours associated with femininity, and oppressive towards homosexuality (Pronger 1990). Much of this is because, since the second industrial revolution, sport has been socially valued as a vehicle for the production of an orthodox type of masculinity based upon aggressive physical expression and emotional restraint (Kreager 2007), hyper-competitiveness and over conformity to social norms (Hughes et al. 1991); misogyny (Schacht 1996) and homophobic attitudes (Anderson 2000). These characteristics were demanded of men throughout much of the twentieth century, particularly within the domains of the industrial workplace and military. However, in more recent years, sport must also be recognized for its contribution to the opposite–the liberation of males from …